Introduction
Considerable confusion exists in literature regard- ing the definition of 'Islamic Medicine'. This is main- ly because each author that writes about 'Islamic Medicine' is actually writing about an aspect of Islamic Medicine. Thus the definition can vary depending upon the perspective. The context can be historical, cultural, scientific, pharmacological, ther- apeutic, religious or even a geo-political. In this monograph we shall be examining this body of knowledge mainly from its historical, scientific, ther- apeutic and application viewpoints.
The main source of all inspirational knowledge in Islam is 'The Holy Quran' . This book is considered by Muslims or followers of Islam to be the word of Allah or God, revealed by Him to the Prophet of Islam: Mohammed. A secondary source of a Muslims' inspiration is the 'Hadith or Sunna', which are the recorded and authenticated sayings and tradi- tions of the Prophet of Islam: Mohammed.
As such not much medicine is mentioned in the Quran except for beneficial effects of some natural foods viz. honey and abstinence from intake of alco- hol or other intoxicants proscribed on every Muslim, yet the Quran is the guiding spirit that every Muslim has to follow, including the physicians in treating their patient and the patients in handling their illness. However very early in the Islamic era, the Hadith lit- erature had accumulated a number of sayings and tra- ditions of the Prophet under a collection called the
'Prophetic Medicine'. These edicts expounded on virtues of diet, natural remedies, and management of simple ailments like headache, fever, sore throat, conjunctivitis, etc. More importantly however injunctions were prescribed against contact with per- sons having a contagious disease for instance leprosy or entering or leaving an area of an epidemic or plague, thus helping to limit the disease. In addition a large number of traditions were collected under the title of 'Spiritual Medicine'. These were a collection of the verses of the Quran or prayers to the Almighty, which invoked blessings and which had to be recited when affliction was to be expurgated.
Prophetic Medicine
'Prophetic Medicine' although popular amongst the masses of Muslims because of its doctrinal and theological contents was considered by most Muslim historians and physicians as distinct from scientific and analytical Islamic Medicine. Ibn Khaldun (1332-
1406 AD) a well known medieval Muslim jurist, his- torian, statesman in his 'Muqaddimah' states:
'The Bedouins in their culture, have a kind of med- icine which they base primarily on experience restrict- ed to a few patients only, and which they have inherit- ed from their tribal leaders and old women. In some cases it is correct, but it is not founded on natural laws, nor is it tested against (scientific accounts) nat- ural constitution (of peoples). Now the Arabs had a great deal of this type of Medicine before the advent of Islam and there were among them well known doctors like al-Harith ibn Kalada and others. Their Medicine that has been transmitted in the Islamic religious works (as opposed to those works which were consid- ered scientific works) belong to this genre. It is defi- nitely no part of divine revelation (to the Prophet: Mohammed) but was something customarily practiced by the Arabs. This type of Medicine thus is included in his biographies, just as are other multitudinous of mat- ters of sociological importance like the natural life and customs of the Arabs, but forms no part of religion of Islam to be practiced in the same way.'
Definition
Islamic Medicine in its true context, can thus be defined as a body of knowledge of Medicine that was inherited by the Muslims in the early phase of Islamic History (40-247 AH/661 -861 AD) from mostly Greek sources, but to which became added medical knowledge from, Persia, Syria, India and Byzantine. This knowledge was not only to become translated into Arabic, the literary and scientific lingua franca of the time, but was to be expounded, assimilated, exhaustively added to and subsequently codified, and
'islamicized'. The Physicians of the times both Muslim and non-Muslim were then to add to this, their own observations and experimentation and con- vert it into a flourishing and practical science, thus helping in not only in curing the ailments of the masses, but increasing their standards of health. The effects of its domineering influence extending not only in the vast stretches of the Islamic lands, but also in all adjoining nations including Europe, Asia, China, and the Far East. The span was measurable not only for few centuries, but also perhaps for an entire millennium, 610 to 1610 AD. During which time, Europe and rest of the extant civilized nations of the world were in grips of the 'dark ages'. It also to set the standards of hygiene, and preventative medicine and thus was responsible for the improve- ment of the general health of the masses. It was to hold sway until decadence finally set in, concomitant with the political decline of the Islamic nation. With the advent of Renaissance in Europe, at the beginning of the 17th century AD, it was finally challenged by the new and emerging science of modern medicine, which was to finally replace it in most of the coun- tries, including the countries of its birth!
Historical Background
In order to understand the period in which Islamic medicine was born, one has to understand the salient events in the advent of Islam and a few events just preceding the Islamic era. Arabia which was a large area covered mostly by an arid desert that was roamed by nomadic tribes of Bedouins. Certain com- munities had been established where the trade routes intersected and water was available. Mecca was along the Yaman-Damascus trade route. It was con- sidered a holy city and a sanctuary. The Kaaba or house of worship was replete with idols of different gods each representing a tribe or community. These Bedouins had their own tribal moral or ethical codes of conduct and idolatry was in practice. Blood feuds were common and attacking caravans along trade routes was a way of life. Sacrifices were often offered to appease the gods and burying of live female chil- dren was common practice. Family feuds were com- mon and settling scores in order to uphold tribal honor led to frequent bloody encounters in which many people were killed. Women and children were treated as 'chattels' or private possessions and became the property of the winner. This era of Arabia is frequently referred by Muslims as 'Jahilliya' or age of ignorance. Islam was not only to bring dramat- ic changes in the religious practices of these warring nomadic tribes but also unite them into an unprece- dented social and cultural nation that very quickly was to develop into a strong political entity, with its own system of administration, justice, and military power, all under one leadership. The first leader of the Islamic State was no doubt the Prophet of Islam, Mohammed but then his four successors called the
'Pious Caliphs' were to quickly consolidated and expand the nation. Within one hundred years of com- ing into existence, the Islamic empire had spread from Spain in the West, to China in the East, and encompassed in its midst, the whole of Northern Africa, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Transjordan, Central Asia and parts of Western India. Later it was to be even carried further by the Muslim merchants to the shores of the far east including the Malaysian penin- sula, the islands of the East Indies and Indonesia. In its early era and for several centuries, the Islamic empire was centrally governed by a leader or
'Caliph' and administered by provincial governors. The first four Caliphs were elected democratically but the later the Caliphate became dynastic. Later still a western Caliphate was established in Spain. In later history the Islamic Nation was to break up into various kingdoms, as the provincial rulers become more autonomous and independent of the center and was ultimately to be overrun by the Sejluk Turks who were the forerunners of the Ottoman empire.
It was during the early Caliphates of the
'Ummayads' and the 'Abbasids' that the maximum development of Islamic Medicine took place. It was also during this time and under the patronage of these Caliphs that the great physicians both Muslim and non-Muslim thrived, accumulated the wealth of med- ical knowledge and cultivated a system of medicine that was to be later called 'Islamic Medicine' The early era of Islamic Medicine and the School of Medicine at Jundishapur: Jundishapur or 'Gondeshapur' was a city in
Khuzistan founded by a Sasnid emperor Shapur I
(241-272 AD) before the advent of Islam. It was to settle Greek prisoners, hence the name 'Wandew Shapur' or 'acquired by Shapur.' In present day Western Persia the site is marked by the ruins of Shahbad near the city of Ahwaz. The town was taken by Muslims during the caliphate of Hadrat Umar, by Abu Musa Al-Ashari in (17 AH/738 AD ). At this time it already had a well established Hospital and Medical school.
Many Syrians took refuge in the city when
Antioch was captured by Shapur I. In fact the latter
nicknamed the city 'Vehaz-Andevi Shapur' or
'Shapur is better than Antioch.' The closing of the
Nestorian School of Edessa by Emperor Zeno in 489
AD led to the Nestorians fleeing from there and seek- ing refuge in Jundishapur under patronage of Shapur II, which got an academic boost as a result. The Greek influence was already predominant in Jundishapur when the closing of the Athenian school in 529 AD by order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian drove many learned Greek physicians to this town. A University with a medical school and a hospital were established by Khusraw Anushirwan the wise (531-579 AD) where the Greeco-Syriac medicine blossomed. To this was added medical knowledge from India brought by the physician vizier of Anushirwan called 'Burzuyah.' On his return the latter brought back from India the famous
'Fables of Bidpai', several Indian Physicians, details of Indian Medical Texts and a Pahlavi translation of the 'Kalila and Dimma.' Khusraw was even present- ed a translation of Aristotleian Logic and philosophy. Thus at the time of the Islamic invasion the school of Jundishapur was well established and had become renowned as a medical center of Greek, Syriac and Indian learning. This knowledge had intermingled to create a highly acclaimed and state of the art Medical school and hospital. After the advent of Islamic rule the University continued to thrive. In fact the first recorded Muslim Physician Harith bin Kalada, who was a contemporary of the Prophet acquired his med- ical knowledge at medical school and hospital at Jundishapur.
It is likely that the medical teaching at Jundishapur was modeled after the teaching at Alexandria with some influence from Antioch but it is important to note that 'the treatment was based entirely on scientific analysis, in true Hippocratic tradition', rather than a mix-up with superstition and rituals as was the case in Greek 'asclepieia' and Byzantine 'nosocomia'. This hospital and Medical Center was to become the model on which all later Islamic Medical Schools and Hospitals were to be built. The School none the less thrived during the Ummayid caliphate and Sergius of Rasul'ayn trans- lated medical and philosophical works of both Hippocrates and Galen into Syriac. These were later to be translated into Arabic casting an everlasting imprint onto all the future of Islamic Medicine.
It was during the Abbasid Caliphate that Caliph al-Mansur the founder of the city of Baghdad invited the then head of the Jundishapur School to treat him. This physician was Jirjis Bukhtyishu, a Christian whose name meant 'Jesus has saved'. He treated the Caliph successfully and got appointed to the court. He however did not stay permanently in Baghdad returning to Jundishapur before his death, but the migration to Baghdad had begun. Thus his son Jibrail Bukhtishu established practice in the city and became a prominent physician. Another family that migrated from Jundishapur to Baghdad was the family of Masawayh who went at the invitation of Caliph Harun-ul-Rashid and became a famous Ophthalmologist. Most famous amongst his three sons who were physicians was Yuhanna ibn Masawayh (Mesue Senior). He wrote prolifically and
42 works are attributed to him. By this time second half of 2nd century after hijra (8th century AD) the fame of Baghdad began to rise as also the political power of the caliphate. Many hospitals and medical centers were established and tremendous intellectual activity was recorded. This culminated into the peri- od of Islamic Renaissance and the golden era of Islamic Medicine of which description is given under a separate section.
